Ceramic
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searchThis article is about ceramic materials. For the fine art, see
Ceramic art.
Fixed Partial
Denture, or "Bridge"
The word ceramic is derived from the
Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos). The term covers
inorganic non-
metallic materials which are formed by the action of heat. Up until the 1950s or so, the most important of these were the traditional
clays, made into
pottery,
bricks,
tiles and the like, along with
cements and
glass.
Clay-based ceramics are described in the article on
pottery. A
composite material of ceramic and
metal is known as
cermet. The word ceramic can be an adjective, and can also be used as a noun to refer to a ceramic material, or a product of ceramic manufacture. Ceramics may also be used as a singular noun referring to the art of making things out of ceramic materials. The technology of manufacturing and usage of ceramic materials is part of the field of
ceramic engineering.
Many ceramic materials are hard, porous, and brittle. The study and development of ceramics includes methods to mitigate problems associated with these characteristics, and to accentuate the strengths of the materials as well as to investigate novel applications.
The
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a ceramic article as “an article having a glazed or unglazed body of
crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or of glass, which body is produced from essentially inorganic, non-metallic substances and either is formed from a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed and simultaneously or subsequently matured by the action of the heat.”
[1]//
[
edit] Types of ceramic materials
For convenience ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors, and these are shown below with some examples:
Structural, including
bricks,
pipes,
floor and
roof tilesRefractories, such as
kiln linings, gas fire radiants,
steel and glass making crucibles
Whitewares, including
tableware, wall tiles, decorative art objects and sanitary ware
Technical, is also known as Engineering, Advanced, Special, and in Japan, Fine Ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the
Space Shuttle program, gas burner
nozzles,
ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets,
bio-medical implants,
jet engine turbine blades, and
missile nose cones. Frequently the raw materials do not include clays.
[
edit] Examples of whiteware ceramics
Bone chinaEarthenware, which is often made from clay,
quartz and
feldspar.
Porcelain, which are often made from
kaolinStoneware[
edit] Classification of technical ceramics
Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
Oxides:
Alumina,
zirconiaNon-oxides:
Carbides,
borides,
nitrides,
silicidesComposites: Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides.
Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties
[
edit] Examples of technical ceramics
Barium titanate(often mixed with
strontium titanate) displays
ferroelectricity, meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent. It is widely used in
electromechanical transducers, ceramic
capacitors, and
data storage elements.
Grain boundary conditions can create
PTC effects in
heating elements.
Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, a
high-temperature superconductorBoron nitride is structurally
isoelectronic to carbon and takes on similar physical forms: a
graphite-like one used as a
lubricant, and a
diamond-like one used as an abrasive.
Ferrite (
Fe3O4), which is
ferrimagnetic and is used in the
magnetic cores of electrical
transformers and
magnetic core memory.
Lead zirconate titanate is another ferroelectric material.
Magnesium diboride (
MgB2), which is an
unconventional superconductor.
Sialons /
Silicon Aluminium Oxynitrides, high strength, high thermal shock / chemical / wear resistance, low density ceramics used in non-ferrous molten metal handling, weld pins and the chemical industry.
Silicon carbide (
SiC), which is used as a
susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a
refractory material.
Silicon nitride (Si3
N4), which is used as an
abrasive powder.
Steatite (magnesium silicates) is used as an
electrical insulator.
Titanium Carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof watches.
Uranium oxide (
UO2), used as
fuel in
nuclear reactors.
Yttrium barium copper oxide (
YBa2
Cu3
O7-x), another high temperature
superconductor.
Zinc oxide (
ZnO), which is a
semiconductor, and used in the construction of
varistors.
Zirconium dioxide (zirconia), which in pure form undergoes many
phase changes between room temperature and practical
sintering temperatures, can be chemically "stabilized" in several different forms. Its high oxygen
ion conductivity recommends it for use in
fuel cells. In another variant,
metastable structures can impart
transformation toughening for mechanical applications; most
ceramic knife blades are made of this material.
[
edit] Properties of ceramics
[
edit] Mechanical properties
Ceramic materials are usually
ionic or
covalent bonded materials, and can be
crystalline or
amorphous. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to
fracture before any
plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor
toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the
pores and other microscopic imperfections act as
stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the
tensile strength. These combine to give
catastrophic failures, as opposed to the normally much more gentle
failure modes of metals.
These materials do show
plastic deformation. However, due to the rigid structure of the crystalline materials, there are very few available
slip systems for
dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly. With the non-crystalline (glassy) materials,
viscous flow is the dominant source of plastic deformation, and is also very slow. It is therefore neglected in many applications of ceramic materials.
[
edit] Electrical properties
[
edit] Semiconductors
There are a number of ceramics that are
semiconductors. Most of these are
transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as
zinc oxide.
While there is talk of making blue
LEDs from
zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects.
One of the most widely used of these is the varistor. These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain
threshold voltage. Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a
breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the
grain boundaries, which results in its
electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred
ohms. The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self reset — after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.
This makes them ideal for
surge-protection applications. As there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in
electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from
lightning strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.
Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as
gas sensors. When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.
[
edit] Superconductivity
Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics exhibit
high temperature superconductivity. The exact reason for this is not known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics .
[
edit] Ferroelectricity and supersets
Piezoelectricity, a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to
measure time in watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again.
The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit
pyroelectricity, and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to inter convert between thermal, mechanical, and/or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts. Such materials are used in
motion sensors, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal.
In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials which also display the
ferroelectric effect, in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field. Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in
ferroelectric capacitors, elements of
ferroelectric RAM.
The most common such materials are
lead zirconate titanate and
barium titanate. Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency
loudspeakers, transducers for
sonar, and actuators for
atomic force and
scanning tunneling microscopes.
[
edit] Positive thermal coefficient
Increases in temperature can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of
heavy metal titanates. The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through the material until
joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles.
At the transition temperature, the material's
dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason.
[
edit] Classification of ceramics
Non-crystalline ceramics: Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mold. If later heat-treatments cause this class to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a
glass-ceramic.
Crystalline ceramics: Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then
sintering to form a solid body.
Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"),
slip casting,
tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, etc.), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. (See also Ceramic forming techniques. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below.) A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.
[
edit] In situ manufacturing
The most common use of this method is in the production of cement and concrete. Here, the dehydrated powders are mixed with water. This starts hydration reactions, which result in long, interlocking crystals forming around the aggregates. Over time, these result in a solid ceramic.
The biggest problem with this method is that most reactions are so fast that good mixing is not possible, which tends to prevent large-scale construction. However, small-scale systems can be made by deposition techniques, where the various materials are introduced above a substrate, and react and form the ceramic on the substrate. This borrows techniques from the semiconductor industry, such as
chemical vapour deposition, and is very useful for coatings.
These tend to produce very dense ceramics, but do so slowly.
[
edit] Sintering-based methods
The principles of
sintering-based methods is simple. Once a roughly held together object (called a "green body") is made, it is baked in a kiln, where
diffusion processes cause the green body to shrink. The pores in the object close up, resulting in a denser, stronger product. The firing is done at a temperature below the melting point of the ceramic. There is virtually always some
porosity left, but the real advantage of this method is that the green body can be produced in any way imaginable, and still be sintered. This makes it a very versatile route.
There are thousands of possible refinements of this process. Some of the most common involve pressing the green body to give the densification a head start and reduce the sintering time needed. Sometimes organic
binders such as
polyvinyl alcohol are added to hold the green body together; these burn out during the firing (at 200–350°C). Sometimes organic lubricants are added during pressing to increase densification. It is not uncommon to combine these, and add binders and lubricants to a powder, then press. (The formulation of these organic chemical additives is an art in itself. This is particularly important in the manufacture of high performance ceramics such as those used by the billions for
electronics, in capacitors,
inductors,
sensors, etc. The specialized formulations most commonly used in electronics are detailed in the book "Tape Casting," by R.E. Mistler, et al., Amer. Ceramic Soc. [Westerville, Ohio], 2000.) A comprehensive book on the subject, for mechanical as well as electronics applications, is "Organic Additives and Ceramic Processing," by D. J. Shanefield, Kluwer Publishers [Boston], 1996.
A slurry can be used in place of a powder, and then cast into a desired shape, dried and then sintered. Indeed, traditional pottery is done with this type of method, using a plastic mixture worked with the hands.
If a mixture of different materials is used together in a ceramic, the sintering temperature is sometimes above the melting point of one minor component - a liquid phase sintering. This results in shorter sintering times compared to solid state sintering.
[
edit] Other applications of ceramics
Ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives. The blade of the
ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface.
Ceramics such as
alumina and
boron carbide have been used in
ballistic armored vests to repel large-caliber
rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as
small-arms protective inserts (SAPI). Similar material is used to protect
cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.
Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness means that they are much less susceptible to wear and can often more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less under load meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings; problems which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. The major drawback to using ceramics is a significantly higher cost. In many cases their electrically insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings.
In the early 1980s,
Toyota researched production of an
adiabatic ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency.
Fuel efficiency of the engine is also higher at high temperature, as shown by
Carnot's theorem. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as
waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is not feasible with current technology.
Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for
gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made of
advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones.
Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and
tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxy apatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch-resistance, durability and smooth touch.
IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun edition of the Pilot's Watch
Double chronograph is crafted in high-tech black ceramic.
[2][
edit] See also
Look up
Ceramic in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Ceramics (art)Ceramic forming techniquesGlass-ceramic-to-metal sealsPorcelainPotteryThree point flexural testPhase Equilibria Diagrams database
[
edit] References
^ Ceramic Tile and Stone Standards^ Ceramic in Watchmaking[
edit] External links
Advanced Ceramics – The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics
How pottery is madeHow sanitaryware is madeWorld renowned ceramics collections at Stoke-on-Trent Museum Click on Quick Links in the right-hand column to view examples.
The Gardiner Museum - The only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics.
Introduction, Scientific Principles, Properties and Processing of CeramicsThe American Ceramic Society The American Ceramic Society
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